Asian Monks Engaging in Aggression: Understanding Buddhist Aggression in Asia
Increasingly, a significant portion of countries worldwide have witnessed a surge in social hostilities involving religion, the Pew Research Center reports, with more than a quarter displaying "high" or "very high" levels of religious-based violence. This phenomenon has manifested globally, as evidenced by the recent spate of religious violence in the Middle East, spurred by Hamas' attack on Israel last October. Sectarian conflicts also persist in diverse nations such as India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Vietnam, and are amplified by a rising tide of hate crimes in the United States and Europe, against both Jews and Muslims.
In addition to Islam, scholars are now examining religious violence within other world religions. One such faith tradition is Buddhism, often regarded as a religion characterized by peace, tolerance, and compassion. However, countless historical examples reveal a darker side to Buddhism that contests its non-violent nature.
Scholars suggest that the stereotypical depiction of Buddhism as innately peaceful is tinged with a form of "positive Orientalism," overemphasizing its meditation-oriented dimensions and underplaying its violent past.
An example of violent Buddhism can be traced back to sixth-century China, where Buddhist soldiers were awarded the status of bodhisattva for their kills, or to feudal Japan, where warrior Buddhist monks called the Sohei used force to defend territory and attack rivals. In 16th-century Thailand, Buddhist holy men incited bloody revolts against the government, while during World War II, Zen Buddhism fueled Japanese militarism, including the government's use of suicide warfare.
Recent incidents of Buddhist-related violence are evident in Southeast and South Asian countries, where radical Buddhists have justified and committed acts of violence. Notable instances include a deadly chemical weapons attack on the Tokyo subway system in 1995 by the Japanese doomsday cult Aum Shinrikyo, a descendant of Buddhism, and hundreds of Buddhist monks participating in riots in Tibet in 2008, which resulted in dozens of deaths.
Moreover, Buddhist violence has featured prominently in civilian conflicts in Sri Lanka and ongoing ethnic cleansing in Myanmar. In Asian countries, this militant Buddhism has clashed with minority faith traditions.
In the 21st century, Buddhist violence has occurred in eight out of eleven countries where Buddhists are the majority, such as large-scale persecutions of minorities. Additionally, Buddhists in countries where they are not the majority have supported violence, such as the head of the largest Buddhist denomination in Russia publicly endorsing Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022.
Many explanations have been put forth to account for religious violence, with Asian scholars focusing on the relationship between temple and state in Buddhist-majority countries. This relationship, they believe, has been mutually reinforcing, leading Buddhism to become complicit in state-sanctioned violence.
Simply put, governments have attempted to co-opt Buddhism for political gain. In return, Buddhist monks expect these governments to maintain social order and reinforce the purity of the Buddhist state.
These political alliances are not exclusive to Buddhism, but they complicate religious tolerance and can promote violence. This is particularly true in countries where governments favor a historically and culturally dominant religious community, such as Buddhism. These policies may be intended to bolster government legitimacy, but they can radicalize the majority and encourage violence against religious minorities.
The dynamic between Buddhist violence and institutional arrangements is complex, with a feedback loop of violence and religious favoritism fueling further conflict. Governments may justify further favoritism as a response to unrest they helped provoke, creating an endless cycle of violence.
This perspective on religious violence does not single out Buddhism as inherently prone to violence. Instead, it emphasizes the political arrangements that encourage faith-based violence, arguing that any religion could become violent under the right circumstances. Further studies are needed to understand the complex factors that explain the historical and contemporary cases of Buddhist violence.
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References[1] Michael K. Jerryson, "Buddhist Traditions and Violence," in Mark Juergensmeyer, Margo Kitts, and Michael K. Jerryson, eds., "The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Violence" (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).
[2] Vladimir Tikhonov and Torkel Brekke, eds., "Buddhism and Violence: Militarism and Buddhism in Modern Asia" (New York: Routledge, 2013).
[3] Ian Harris, ed., "Buddhism and Politics in Twentieth-Century Asia" (London: Continuum, 1999), p. vii.
[4] Nil S. Satana, Molly Inman, and Jóhanna Kristín Birnir, "Religion, Government Coalitions, and Terrorism," Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol. 25, No. 1 (2013), pp. 29-52, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2013.733250.
[5] Nilay Saiya, "The Religious Freedom Peace," International Journal of Human Rights, Vol. 19, No. 3 (2015), pp. 369-382, https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2015.1032268.
In light of the global surge in religious-based violence, it's crucial to examine the role of politics in shaping violence within religious groups, such as Buddhism. The political alliances between Buddhism and governments in some countries have been shown to promote religious intolerance and violence, as evidenced by instances in Southeast and South Asian countries, such as Myanmar. Furthermore, the dynamic between religious violence and institutional arrangements, as seen in Buddhism, demonstrates that any religion could become violent under the right political conditions, necessitating continued investigation to understand the complex factors contributing to religious violence.
